Impact of Domestic Violence on Childrens Socialisation Process Dissertation

Impact of Domestic Violence on Childrens Socialisation Process - Dissertation Example Since contemporary era has experienced tremendous alterations in the domestic set up, the rights and obligations of family members have also observed imperative changes in their nature and scope. Being the most innocent stratum of society, children turn out to be the target of these changes, and hence are most affected group of both the positive and negative changes of domestic establishment. The present study will be supported with Learning Theory by Miller and Dollard, Social Control Theory by Travis Hirschi, Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget and Looking Glass Self Theory by Herbert Mead. The following hypothesis is being developed for the present study: The more the violence at domestic level in a group, community or social set up, the more the inclination of the youth towards criminal activities and perversion The main hypothesis has been supported with the following sub-hypotheses: The more the gender discrimination and conflict in a society, the higher the probabiliti es of violence and eventual perversion at massive scale The more unequal and unjust the division of labour at domestic level, the poorer the situation of socialisation process in family Interview-schedule has been selected as the tool for data collection for the research work. The researcher aims to conduct the research in London city, England. Twenty mothers, ten teachers and twenty children will be taken as respondents for the present study in order to give representation to different social classes, racial and ethnic groups, religious faiths and genders. The researcher will apply quota sampling in order to include all communities in the research work. After the completion of the study, the data was arrayed in orderly and tabular form in order to interpret the results and give suggestions at the end. CONTENTS Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 Chapter I i) Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 ii) Statement of the Problem †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 iii) Aims & Objectives †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 iv) Sociological Significance †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 8 Chapter II Review of Relevant Literature †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 Chapter III Theoretical Framework †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 15 Chapter IV Research Me thodology †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 Chapter V General Findings of the Study †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 24 Chapter VI Summary, Conclusion & Suggestions Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 32 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 34 Suggestions †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 36 Bibliography Appendi ces Chapter I Introduction Socialisation is aptly regarded as the process that turns a biological man into cultured one by learning the prevailing social norms, moral values and traditional ways of leading the group life while interacting with other members of society. Hence, socialisation refers to the process by which individuals acquire the values, beliefs, and behavioural patterns of the social groups to which they belong. â€Å"Socialisation is a developmental process in which an individual comes in contact with people and things that allow them to be socially acceptable.

Nuremberg Laws against the Jews Essay Example for Free

Nuremberg Laws against the Jews Essay The Nuremberg Laws were aimed at preserving the purity of the German race. One of the intentions of the Nuremberg Laws was to provide for who was considered to be a Jew or what it meant to be a Jew. This paper therefore examines the Nuremberg Laws, with an aim of answering the comparative question of what it meant to be a Jew according to the laws. The Nuremberg Laws stemmed from the Nazi Racial Legislation of 1935, which was aimed at upholding the perceived Germanic racial superiority, and promoting it as such. According to Hoss (2013), the national identity in Nazi Germany was required to hold an extremely more superior race. As Stimson (2013) points out, the German racial superiority was expected to be free from the Jews’ contamination. Hoss (2013) points out that during Nazi Germany, the Germans were considered better than Jews, and so the former was required to act in a manner that annihilated the latter. It is for this reason that Nuremberg Laws were formulated to define the identity of the Jews and minimize their contamination of the perceived German racial superiority, all in the hope of safeguarding the German nation for the entire future and upholding the perceive purity of the German blood (Ward Gainty, 2011). Article 5 of the Nuremberg Laws provided an elaboration of who was to be considered as a Jew. For instance, under Article 5(1) of the Nuremberg Laws, a person was to be considered as a Jew if he or she was a descendant of at least three grandparents who were racially full Jews. Article 5(1) was to be read together with the second sentence of part 2 of Article 2 of the Nuremberg Laws. Article 5(2) of the Nuremberg Laws also provided that a person shall be considered as a Jew if both of his or her parents were full Jews (Ward Gainty, 2012, p. 332). Under the statute of these formed laws (i. e. the Nuremberg Laws), a person was deemed to have descended from two full Jewish parents, if (a) he or she was a member of the Jewish religious community at the time the Nuremberg Laws came to force, or joined the said community after the laws came into force; (b) he or she was in a marriage relationship with a Jew at the time the laws come into force or entered into such a marriage after the laws had come into force; (c) he or she was born to at least a Jewish parent in a manner provided under Section 1, and if the marriage from which he or she is an offspring was constructed consequent to the coming into force of the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor; and (d) he or she was an offspring an extramarital relationship, that involved a Jew, in the sense of Section 1, and was to be born outside wedlock after the 31st day of July, the year 1936 (Ward Gainty, 2012). Section 1 of the Nuremberg Laws prohibited any form of marriage relationship between German nationals or kindred blood and Jew. Such marriages were to be considered illegal and against section 1 of the Nuremberg Laws even if, for purposes of evading the law, they were concluded outside Nazi Germany. An individual who happened to be a Jew as provided under Article 5 of the Nuremberg Laws, and as has been explained highlighted in the previous paragraphs, was prohibited, under Section 1 of the Laws, from contracting any marriage relationship with a German national or kindred blood, whether within Nazi Germany or overseas (Ward Gainty, 2012,). Similarly, Section 2 of the said laws prevented any Jew from entering into any outside marriage with German nationals or kindred blood. According to Hoss (2013) this was aimed at protecting the superiority of the German nation and preserving the purity of the German blood by ensuring that no child of German origin was born outside wedlock, and worse still, with a Jewish parent, since the Jews were not expected to mingle with the German nationals. The Nuremberg Laws did not target the Jews within the context of marriage per se, but also sought to limit the rights of the Jews in terms of free and fair management of their households. For instance, under Section 3 of the Nuremberg Laws, no Jew was allowed to employ a female German national or kindred blood as a domestic worker (Ward Gainty, 2012). This was construed by Hoss (2013) as a way of preventing incidents of master-servant abuses (e. g. sexual abuse of female German national domestic servants by their Jewish masters), and which could, in some cases, lead to the breach of Section 2 of the laws. The Jews were also prohibited from associating with both the Reich and the German national flag. For instance, Section 4 of the Nuremberg Laws prohibited any Jewish person from hosting the Reich and/or national flag as well as hosting the colours of the Reich (Ward Gainty, 2012). The punishments that were to be meted against the Jews who were deemed to have acted in breach of sections 1-4 of the Nuremberg Laws varied in nature, and were provided under Section 5 of the laws. For instance, acting contrary to Section 1 of the laws attracted hard labour as punishment, whereas that who breached Section 2 of the said laws was liable for imprisonment or hard labour (Ward Gainty, 2012). Similarly, Section 5 of the laws provided that whoever (i. e. any Jew) was found to have acted contrary to the provisions of Sections 3 and 4 of the laws would be liable for imprisonment for a period of not more than 1 year, and with a fine or with one of the penalties provided thereof (Ward Gainty, 2012). In conclusion therefore, the Nuremberg Laws, when viewed from legal and moral perspectives, appear to be both illegal (especially in the context of international humanitarian law) and immoral, as they aimed at legalizing open discrimination against the Jews and denying members of the Jewish community the right to freedom of association and expression of free will. In addition, the supposed punishments for acting in breach of the various Sections of the laws were controversial, and so depended on the mood and attitude of whoever was presiding over as the ‘judge. ’ For instance, Section 5(3) of the laws fell short of defining what constituted a fine as a punishment for acting in breach of Sections 3 and 4 of the laws. The implication thereof is that a ‘judge’ may sometimes impose a fine that is not commensurate with the offence committed. References Hoss, R. (2013). â€Å"Memoirs. † Swerdloff, Howard. The World since 1924. Boston, New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press. Stimson, H. L. (2013). The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb. Swerdloff, Howard. The World since 1914. Boston, New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press. Ward. D. W. , Gainty, D. (2011). Sources of World Societies vol II, since 1450. Second Edition (pp. 1-512). Boston, New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press. Ward. D. W. , Gainty, D. (2012). The Nuremberg Laws: The Centerpiece of Nazi Racial Legislation (331-333), in Sources of World Societies. Volume 2: Since 1450 (2nd Ed). Boston: Bedford.

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay Human population can be categorized into secretors and non-secretors. They are categorized on the basis of presence or absence of the blood group antigens (A, B and H) in the body fluids and secretions, such as saliva, sweat, tears, semen, serum, mucus present in the digestive tract or respiratory cavities etc. Secretors are individuals that secrete blood group antigens in their body fluids while non-secretors are the individuals that do not secrete them in their body fluids and secretions. It is a known fact that ABO blood type is controlled by blood type coding genes present on the chromosome 9q34 but the secretor status of an individual is decided by interaction of a separate gene (called secreting gene) with these blood type genes. The presence of the secreting gene in a persons genome makes him a secretor and absence makes him a non secretor. The gene is designated as (Se) for Secretors and (se) for Non-secretors and it is entirely independent of the blood type A, B, AB or O. The individuals secreting antigens in the body fluid are designated as ABH secretors in blood banks. Individuals having O blood group secrete antigen H, A blood group secrete A and H antigens, B blood group secrete B and H antigens in the fluids. A secretor gene helps a person to gain a degree of protection against different environmental conditions especially the micro flora of a particular environment and also the lectins present in them. It helps them in promoting the growth of friendly, stable blood type intestinal bacterial ecosystem which depends on the blood type antigens present in the mucus of an individual. Secretor status does alter the carbohydrates present in the body fluids and their secretions and hence it also affects and influences the attachment and persistence of the micro flora present in the body. Secretors are at a higher advantage than non-secretors. Non-secretors have a potential health disadvantage. They possess many metabolic traits such as carbohydrate intolerance, immune susceptibilities. Different tests are available for determining an individuals secretor status. Most common test uses saliva or other body fluids of an individual for testing the secretor status. These tests are based on the princi ple of Agglutination Inhibition where the antigens are neutralized by the corresponding antibodies so that these antibodies will not be further be available to neutralize or agglutinate the same antigens residing on the red blood cells. ELISA could also be used for determining the presence of the secreted Lewis antigens in the saliva or other body fluids. Statistics Series, Place Reference Number Tested % Secretor % Non-secretor Frequency Frequency Negroes,New York (5) 178 61.2 38.8 0.38 0.62 Danes,Copenhagen (6) 263 74.0 26.0 0.49 0.51 Japanese,Japan . 424 75.7 24.3 0.51 0.49 Germans,Berlin (7) 363 78.0 22.0 0.53 0.47 Poles,Poland (8) 88 79.4 21.6 0.54 0.46 Whites, New York (9) 74 82.4 17.6 0.58 0.42 Finns, Helsinki (10) 196 86.3 13.7 0.63 0.37 American, Indians,New Mexico (11) 69 98.5 1.5 0.88 0.12 American, Indians, Utah (12) 79 100.0 0 1.00 0 The alleles Se and se differ in the frequency and have an anthropological value. They occur in different frequency in different populations. They have a high frequency in the American Indiana and a low frequency in the southern Indians. In US 20% of the population is secretors whereas 80% of the population consist of non-secretors. The fusion allele of the FUT2 (secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase) gene at a high frequency and a new se385 allele in a Korean population SECRETOR AND NON-SECRETOR A person secreting blood group antigens into the body fluids and other secretions like saliva, semen, tear, mucous in the digestive tract and respiratory cavities are named as secretors. In similar terms they put their blood type antigens in the body fluids. They secrete antigens according to their blood type, A secrete antigen A and H, B secret antigen B and H, O secrete antigen O and AB secrete A, B and H antigen. Secretors expresses Lewis b (Leb) antigens on the RBC where as non-secretor expresses Lewis a (Le a) on their RBC.These antigens in the body fluids give additional protection to the individual against the various microorganisms and the lectins present all around us. 15- 20% of the population consists of non-secretor. These individual fail to secrete the blood group antigens in their body fluids hence they become susceptible to bacterial and superficial yeast infections. A large no of them sometimes also suffer from the autoimmune disorder. This could also be correlated with the secretor and non-secretor phenotype. The body secretions of secretors and non-secretors differ quantitatively and also qualitatively. The type and quantity of the antigens present in it differ among different individuals. In some cases the non-secretors may contain the A and B antigens in the saliva but the quantity is less and even quality is very low hence they have similar functional problem. There are certain properties which are specific for secretors and differ in non-secretors. Some are listed below: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity ABH secretor correlates the activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase present in the intestine. Non-secretors have low activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase which is responsible for the breakdown of fat and assimilate calcium. Low molecular weight alkaline is present in both secretors and non-secretors and high molecular weight alkaline phosphatase is present only is secretors. Bacterial flora The ABH blood types influence the population of bacteria residing in the local vicinity of the gut mucin glycoproteins. Bacteria produce enzymes that have the capability to degrade the terminal sugar of ABH blood type antigens and which are consumed as food by them. The B antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach the terminal alpha-D-galactose and A antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach N-acetylgalactosamine which are used as a source of food by them. Blood clotting The secretor and the ABO genetics influence each other and influence the variance of the plasma concentration of vWf upto 60%. Raised levels of factor VIII and vWf may cause thrombotic and heart disease in future. Secretors have the slowest clotting time, thinnest blood, least tendency of platelet aggregation, low amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf). The non-secretors have highest clotting time, thick blood, high amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf) and low bleeding time. The blood viscosity is also influenced by the secretor phenotype. Lewis Phenotype Clotting Characteristics Le (a- b-)  Ã‚  highest activity of factor VIII and vWf Shortest bleeding times (especially in A, B and AB) Le (a+ b-) intermediate activity Shorter bleeding times (especially for O) Le (a- b+) lowest activity of factor VIII and vWf Longest bleeding times (especially for O) Lewis Blood Type and Clotting Factors Immunoglobulin levels ABH non-secretors have low levels of IgG immunoglobulin. The secretion of different concentration of different components of the blood group substances is controlled by the secretor gene and it also affects the phagocytic activity of the leucocytes which provides an added advantage to the non-secretors. The leucocytes of the non-secretors possess a greater ingestion power when compared to the secretors. The O and B blood group non-secretors have the highest phagocytic activity. The presence of level of anti-I in the serum of an individual is affected by the ABO group, secretor status and sex of the individual. The secretors females have a high level of anti-I in the serum as compared to the males. The non-secretor have low levels of IgA and IgG antibodies and hence have frequent problems with the heart valve. Genetics and Biochemical pathways The secretion of the blood group antigens in the body fluids and other secretions are genetically influenced by certain allelomorphic genes. Secretor gene contains two alleles Se and se. Se is dominant and hence is present in the homozygous or heterozygous condition in the secretors which lead to the secretion of antigens into the body fluids. se is recessive allele and is present in non-secretors in the homozygous condition. SeSe and seSe produces a dominant secretor phenotype and sese produces a recessive non-secretor phenotype. Basically three genes are responsible for the formation of the A and B antigens. They are namely ABO, Hh, and Sese genes encoding glycosyltransferases which produces the A and B antigens. H antigen present in the individual with O blood group is the precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. H antigen act as a backbone on which the A and B antigens are built up. The O gene is considered as amorphic. The allele Hh and Sese reside on each locus and are closely linked together. It is also suggested that one of the allele has arisen by the gene duplication of the other. The H allele is responsible for the production of H antigen on which antigen A and B are built. The second allele on the same locus is really rare. The product related to this allele hasnt been discovered yet and hence it is considered as amorph. The oligosaccharide responsible for the formation of the A and B antigen can exist in a simple linear fashion or a complex branched fashion. Infants A, B and H antigens contain high amount of linear chained oligosaccharide whereas oligosaccharides present in an adult contain high amount of branched chained oligosaccharides The A and B antigen is synthesized from a common intermediate known as substance H. The conversion is carried out by the addition of a sugar molecule to the non reducing end of the H oligosaccharide chains. This addition affects the reactivity of H antigen. The ABH substances are secreted in the Urinary respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract by mucous glands residing there. The secretor gene regulates the synthesis of blood group antigens in the superficial glands of gastric and small intestinal mucosa. The secretors and non-secretors produce A and B substances which are basically glycoproteins in pylorus and Brunners glands and produce A and B substances those are soluble in alcohol and glycosphingolipids in nature. The secretors also produce ABH substances in the prostate and lactating mammary glands. The secretion of breast is rich in H substance but poor in substance A and virtually absent in substance B. The synthesis of these substances in the exocrine acini of pancreas and secretory cells of sweat gland is not controlled by the secretor gene. The blood groups substances were also detected in the collecting tubules and calyxes of the secretors but it could not be concluded that whether they are produced by the kidneys or are generally excreted. These secretions were noticed in the eight to nine weeks old salivary glands and stomach and later it appears throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Glycosphingolipids carrying the A or B oligosaccharides are present on the membranes of RBCs, epithelial and endothelial cells and are also present in the plasma in the soluble form. The glycoproteins carrying the similar A and B oligosaccharides are responsible for their activity in the body fluids. In the body fluids they are present in the secreted form. The A and B oligosaccharides which do not contain the carrier proteins are present in the milk and urine. The chromosome 19 containsFUT 1 and FUT 2 genes which code for fucosyltransferase. FUT genes numbered from 1-7 and form clusters which are responsible for the production of enzymes called as fucosyltranferases. The cluster is located on chromosome 19q13.3. Fucosyltranferase helps in the formation of fucose moiety which is added to the H antigen and further gylcosylate the A or/and B antigens. H antigen is a basic blood group antigen present in each and every human being but the content varies in different individuals of the same ABO group. A general pattern indicates that its strength varies as O>A2>A2B>B>A1>A1B. Water soluble H antigen has been demonstrated in the saliva and the body fluids of the individuals.H antigens are fucose containing glycan units which are present on the glycolipids or glycoproteins residing on the erythrocytes membrane or in the secretions. The fucosylatedglycans are the substrate for the enzyme glycosytransferases that are responsible for the formation of the epitopes for A, B and Lewis blood group antigens. Secretors contain both the alleles whereas non secretor contains the null allele for FUT2 gene. The FUT 2 gene codes for fucosyltranferaseenzyme in the exocrine tissues which lead to formation of antigens in the body secretions and body fluids. The A and B genes produce glycosyltranferase that add sugar to oligosaccharide chains that is converted to H antigen. The H antigen are constructed on the oligosaccharide chain. The oligosaccharide chains could be of two type : Type 1 and type 2. 1 carbon of the terminal 6-carbon sugar b-D-galactose (Gal) is linked to the number 3 carbon of subterminal  N-acetyl-glucosamine  (GlcNAc) in Type 1 chains and to the number 4 carbon of GlcNAc in Type 2 chains. The glycosphingolipids present in the plasma and on the membranes of glandular and parenchymal cells and glycoproteins present on the cell surfaces or body fluids carry either the type 1 or type 2 chains. The glycolipids antigens present on the RBC contain type 2 chains. A gene-specifies N-acetyl-galactosaminyl-transferase and the B gene-specifies galactosaminyl-transferase and add   GalNAc   and  Gal   respectively in alpha (1-3) linkages to the same Gal which is acted on by the H gene transferase. The H gene produces fucosyltransferase that add fucose to the terminal Galactose molecule of type 2 chain. It forms an alpha (1-2) linkage. A and B antigens are constructed when the A and B transferases attach respective sugars to the type 1 or type 2 chain substituted with Fucose. The A alleles encode UDP-GalNAc: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha1->3 N-acetyl-D-galactosaminyltransferase (alpha 1->3 GalNActransferase or histo-blood group A transferase). The B alleles encode UDP-Gal: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase (alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase or histo-blood group B transferase). O alleles encode proteins without glycosyltransferase function The secretor gene FUT2 located at 19q13.3 and codes for the activity of the glycosyltransferasesin concert with the FUT1 gene coding for H antigen, needed to assemble both the ABO and Lewis blood groups.They are active in places like goblet and mucous gland cells which interact with each other and lead to secretions of antigens in the fluids. The expression patterns of both the genes are different. The FUT1 (H) gene is dominantly expressed in the erythroid tissues which lead to the formation of the H enzyme whereas the FUT2 (secretor) gene is expressed in the secretory tissues and lead to the formation of secretor enzyme. The product of the H enzyme or H gene resides on the erythrocytes and product of secretor gene resides on mucins in secretions. If an individual lack these alleles, he/she will not be able express the above active enzymes therefore they would lack the substrates for the A or B glycosyltransferases and hence they would not express the A and B epitopes. Relationship of ABH Secretor status and Lewis system Lewis typing is sometimes used for the de facto determination of the ABH secretor status. The production of Lewis antigens is genetically controlled. Individuals possessing the Lewis (Le) gene would produce the Lewis antigens which are carried in the plasma by different substances and are absorbed onto the Red blood Cells present in ones blood. The ABO determinants and H/h blood groups determinants are structurally related to Lewis blood determinants. FUT1 provide the glycans for glycosyltransferases which convert Lewis antigen to ABH antigens. FUT2 allele is expressed in the secretor and is responsible for the expression of type1 H determinant. The secretors convert their Lewis a antigen to Lewis b therefore they are (a-b+) and the non-secretor are (a+b-) as they lack the FUT2 responsible for glycosyltransferase which could convert Lewis a antigen to Lewis b antigen. Lewis (Le) gene and Secreting (Se) gene interact with each other. Initially Lewisais formed and if Se gene is absent in an individual the Lewisa substance is absorbed on the RBC and the individual is typed as Lewisa but in secretors the Se gene controls the activation of the H gene which causes addition of an additional sugar to Lewisa which convert it to Lewisb. Secretors contain both Lewisa and Lewisb in their plasma but absorb Lewisb preferentially on the red blood cells and the individual is typed as Lewisb. Hence we could interpret that presence of Lewis gene would type an individual as Lewisa positive or Lewisb negative or vice versa. An individual could not be positive for both. A person containing both Lewis gene and Secreting gene are typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb positive whereas a person having the Lewis gene but not the secretor gene is typed as Lewisa positive and Lewisb negative. Individual who does not have Lewis gene regardless of secretor gene is typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb negative. Note: Lewis Double Negative (LDN) is a sub type of non secretors but Lewis typing cannot be used for them to determine the ABH secretor status. Detection methods The presence and absence of the antigens in the body fluids could be detected by Agglutination Inhibition and Lewis typing. Agglutination Inhibition test could be divided into two parts:- Part I Antibody Neutralization: To determining ones secretor status, the saliva of the individual is mixed by the antiserum (Anti-A, Anti-B or Anti-H) available commercially. In secretors the soluble substances i.e. blood group antigens will react with the antibodies present in the antiserum and will get neutralized. Part II Agglutination Inhibition: The bed blood cells obtained commercially are added to the test mixture. In secretors agglutination of the RBC do not take place as no free antibodies are available to agglutinate them. All the antibodies have reacted with the soluble antigens present in the saliva whereas in non-secretors agglutination would occur upon addition of the RBC as no blood group antigens are present in the saliva so antibodies present in the antiserum are not neutralized and hence would be free to react with the test RBC cells which are added to the test mixture. Hence agglutination is a negative test for secretor status and positive test for the non-secretor status. Note: Anti-H lectin containing phytohaemagglutinin virtually specific for human RBC. Thirteen Cucurbitaceaespecies have been investigated for the anti-H activity present in their seed lectins. Lectins has been extracted and purified from Ulexeuropaeus seeds. It could be used to demonstrate the H secretor status of blood group O individual and also for subgrouping the blood group A individuals. Lewis typing: Individuals carrying the Lewis gene produce Lewis antigens that are carried by the plasma and are also adsorbed on the red blood cells. Lewis antigens do not reside only on the red blood cells. Initially the gene gives rise to Lewisa. If Se gene is present it activates H gene which interact with the Lewisa and add a sugar to Lewisa and hence get converted it to Lewisb. Both Lewisa and Lewisb in present in the plasma of the secretors. If the Se gene is not present then the Lewisa substance is adsorbed on the red cells and individuals are typed as Lewisa. The secretor status of an individual could be determined with help of Lewisa and Lewisb antibodies mixed with an individuals saliva and observing the agglutination macroscopically. Disease Susceptibility among Secretors and Non-secretors Digestive system Non-secretors are more prone to the diseases caused by the oral bacteria in the digestive system of an individual. It includes ulcers, celiac diseases gastric carcinoma pernicious anemia etc. It could lead to dysplasia or increase in the number of cavities present in the digestive tract. Non-secretors are less resistant to the infection caused by Helicobacter pylori which could lead to the formation of peptic and duodenal ulcers. It could easily colonize and cause inflammation in the non-secretors. The non-secretors lack the blood group antigens in the mucus secretions therefore H.pylori attach to the walls of the digestive tract and cause infection. The secretors have a tendency to secrete free ABH antigens in their intestinal secretions which effect the bacterial and lectins adherence to the microvilli present in the gut. The secretors produce these antigens and act as a competitive disadvantage from preventing H.pylori attachment. These antigens act as a decoy in the secretors whi ch prevent them from attaching with the host tissues. The non-secretors also show a lower IgG immune response to the H.pylori. They have excessive rate of bleeding, perforation and development of stomach ulcers but correlation between these complications and the secretor status have not been documented yet. The non-secretors are not able to turn off the digestive enzymes and hence they produce large amount of enzyme pepsin and hence are more prone to duodenal ulcers. 50% of the duodenal ulcers are present in non-secretors. 30-40% of group O individuals are affected by the duodenal ulcers and 15- 20 % are affected by the gastric ulcers. They act as a multiplicative risk factor with the gene coding for hyperpepsinogenemia I which impact in the risk of duodenal ulcers. Group A individuals have a higher tendency of having gastric cancer and pernicious anemia. Statistics shows that 20% of the group A individuals are affected by gastric cancers and 25% are affected by the pernicious anemi a. Oral pathology The non-secretors are more prone to oral diseases like mouth and esophagus cancer, epithelial dysplasia etc. They have more cavities than secretors. Diabetes The ABH non-secretors and Lewis negative (Le a-b-) individuals have a high risk of developing insulin dependent diabetes or complications arising from diabetes. Secretors with juvenile diabetes have a low chance of developing retinopathy. The ABH non secretors which are affected by insulin dependent diabetes mellitus the mean level of C3c and C4 is lower as compared to ABH secretors. Metabolic Syndrome X The Lewis negative men are predisposing to syndrome X and prothrombic metabolism. They have high levels of BMI, SBP, triglycerides and low rather fasting levels of serum insulin and plasma glucose. This relationship is not true for women and is only applicable for the men. Respiratory System   Secretors have an added protection against the harmful environmental assaults directed towards our lungs and as usual non-secretors have a health disadvantage. They are over represented among the people suffering from influenza viruses A and B, rhinoviruses, respiratory synsytial virus and echinoviruses. The secretors who are miners or smokers do receive a protection against the disastrous effects of the cigarette smoking. Asthma is very common among the individuals working in the coal mines. Upon research it was concluded that asthma among them is also related to the non-secretor phenotype present in them. The non-secretor has a tendency to snore and are more prone to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). Heart disease The ABH non-secretor phenotype have a high risk of developing myocardial infarction and Lewis negative individuals have a high risk of developing chronic heart disease (CHD) and also ischemic heart disease (IHD). They contain high levels of triglycerides. Alcoholism has a positive interaction with the Lewis negative individuals. Alcohol consumption is protective in these individuals. Autoimmune Disease   Autoimmune disorders such as ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthropathy, Sjogrens syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and Graves disease are more prone in non-secretors. The ABH non-secretors affected with graves disease produces high levels of antitubulin antibodies as compared to secretors and are unable to produce the water soluble glycoproteins in the saliva. Fetal Loss and Infertility ABO antigens are also found on the sperm of the secretors. These are obtained from the seminal secretions present in them. ABO incompatibility could exist between the wife and husband if could affect the fertility of an individual. This issue has not been properly studied and is therefore under research. Rheumatic Fever The secretors and group O individuals are resistant to Rheumatic fever and more number of cases have been recorded in the non-secretors. Secretor status could also determine whether the rheumatic fever would be followed by streptococcal pharyngitis or not. Neisseria species The non-secretors who do not produce water soluble antigens in the saliva are at the risk of getting infected by Neisseria meningcococcal disease. The immune capabilities of the secretor provide a relative protection in the secretors. The ABH non-secretors produce low level of anti-meningococcal salivary IgM antibodies which provide protection to the secretors against the microorganism. Candida species Non-secretors are barriers of candida species and therefore are frequently affected by the candida infections. The glycocompounds secreted by secretors in the body fluids inhibit adhesins present on the yeast which are responsible for their adhesion with the body tissues. This leads to the development of the chronic hyperplastic Candidiasis. Statistics shows that 68% on the non-secretors are affected by chronic hyperplastic candidiasis. Non-secretor women are affected by recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. An individual with a combination of non-secretors and absence of Lewis gene are at relative risk of developing recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. Tumor Markers The individuals with inactive Se (se/se) alleles and homozygous active Le alleles (Le/Le) allele have a highest mean value of CA19-9 tumor marker. The Lewis negative individuals irrespective of Se genotype have negative values for CA19-9. The Lewis negative individuals have higher mean value for DU PAN-2 as compared to Le-positive individuals. We can conclude that CA 19-9 marker is not an appropriate tumor marker for Le-negative individuals but DU-PAN-9 is an appropriate tumor marker. Bacteria Urinary Tract Infections Non-secretors are at a higher risk of getting recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and renal scars as compared to secretors. This susceptibility is higher among negative Lewis subset. Statistics of a study done on women affected with recurrent urinary tract infection stated that 29% of the non-secretor women were affected by UTI and 26% of Lewis (a-b-) women were affected by the UTI. The non-secretor phenotype and blood group B and AB phenotype work together to increase the risk of UTI among women. Women and children suffering from renal scarring with and without the antibiotic treatment for UTI are prone to UTI and pyelonephritis. 55-60% of non-secretors develop renal scars and 16% on secretors develop renal scars. C-reactive protein levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and body temperature are higher in the non-secretors that in secretors with recurrent UTI. Conclusion It concludes that there exist a statistical association between the individuals blood-group secretor phenotype and the diseases they are susceptible to. So knowing your secretor status is advantageous as we can use the nutritional supplements more intelligently and effectively. It also makes us aware of the diseases, illness and metabolic dysfunction we are prone to, difference in the levels of intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity, propensities towards blood clotting, tumor markers and different ingredients of breast milk so that we can manage them before hand and would be prepared for them in the near future.

One of Canadas Greatest Authors, Margaret Laurence :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Early Years: The Beginnings of a Writer Sunday, July 18th 1926, at 7:30pm at the Neepawa General Hospital, one of Canada's greatest authors, Margaret Laurence, was born to proud parents Robert and Verna Wemyss. Verna's father, John Simpson, was a self-made man. Born in 1853 in Middletown Ontario, John attended school, training to be a cabinetmaker. In the 1870's John, with only his change in his pocket, made his way towards Portage la Prairie Manitoba, in an attempt to unite with a cousin who sold clothing there. While working in the clothing store, John met his future wife, Jane Bailey. Four years after marrying Jane the Simpson family decided to move north, towards to the newly founded town of Neepawa. Margaret's Laurence's grandmother, Margaret Weymss, whom she was named after, came from a proud family. Margaret Weymss' great-grandfather was the Minister of Agriculture, and at one point the Premier of Manitoba. Margaret Laurence's grandfather, John Weymss, came from England to Neepawa in 1883. John Weymss, Neepawa's first lawyer, was a bright aristocratic man dying tragically, two weeks after the birth of his granddaughter Margaret. This was only the beginning of the many tragic deaths that Margaret's family endured in her first twenty years of life. At the young age of four, Margaret's mother Verna Simpson died. The death of Margaret's mother had a profound effect on the once bright and bubbly girl. It was Verna who first nicknamed her daughter Margaret, "Peggy", a name by which Margaret was addressed as for almost 40 years. After Verna's death, her older sister, Margaret Simpson, quickly moved in with Peggy and her father. A year after moving in, Margaret Simpson married Robert Weymss, becoming "mother" to Peggy. In 1935, another tragedy shook the Weymss household. Peggy's father Robert died after catching pneumonia. Margaret's last family death in her early years was in 1936 when Peggy's grandmother Jane, contracted Polio. It was around this time that Peggy began to write, in an attempt to escape the horrible nightmare she was living, by creating imaginary worlds. Margaret found that writing was the only way she could control external events, such as life and death. At the age of thirteen Margaret Laurence's first story "Pillars of a Nation" was published in the newspaper TheWinnipeg Free Press. The fictional town name Manawaka first appeared in this story. Her second work published in the Winnipeg Free Press was "The Case of the Blond Butcher" only a few months after the first. One of Canada's Greatest Authors, Margaret Laurence :: Biography Biographies Essays The Early Years: The Beginnings of a Writer Sunday, July 18th 1926, at 7:30pm at the Neepawa General Hospital, one of Canada's greatest authors, Margaret Laurence, was born to proud parents Robert and Verna Wemyss. Verna's father, John Simpson, was a self-made man. Born in 1853 in Middletown Ontario, John attended school, training to be a cabinetmaker. In the 1870's John, with only his change in his pocket, made his way towards Portage la Prairie Manitoba, in an attempt to unite with a cousin who sold clothing there. While working in the clothing store, John met his future wife, Jane Bailey. Four years after marrying Jane the Simpson family decided to move north, towards to the newly founded town of Neepawa. Margaret's Laurence's grandmother, Margaret Weymss, whom she was named after, came from a proud family. Margaret Weymss' great-grandfather was the Minister of Agriculture, and at one point the Premier of Manitoba. Margaret Laurence's grandfather, John Weymss, came from England to Neepawa in 1883. John Weymss, Neepawa's first lawyer, was a bright aristocratic man dying tragically, two weeks after the birth of his granddaughter Margaret. This was only the beginning of the many tragic deaths that Margaret's family endured in her first twenty years of life. At the young age of four, Margaret's mother Verna Simpson died. The death of Margaret's mother had a profound effect on the once bright and bubbly girl. It was Verna who first nicknamed her daughter Margaret, "Peggy", a name by which Margaret was addressed as for almost 40 years. After Verna's death, her older sister, Margaret Simpson, quickly moved in with Peggy and her father. A year after moving in, Margaret Simpson married Robert Weymss, becoming "mother" to Peggy. In 1935, another tragedy shook the Weymss household. Peggy's father Robert died after catching pneumonia. Margaret's last family death in her early years was in 1936 when Peggy's grandmother Jane, contracted Polio. It was around this time that Peggy began to write, in an attempt to escape the horrible nightmare she was living, by creating imaginary worlds. Margaret found that writing was the only way she could control external events, such as life and death. At the age of thirteen Margaret Laurence's first story "Pillars of a Nation" was published in the newspaper TheWinnipeg Free Press. The fictional town name Manawaka first appeared in this story. Her second work published in the Winnipeg Free Press was "The Case of the Blond Butcher" only a few months after the first.

Essay Animal

Eating Animals by Jonathan Saffron Foyer's he talks about his journey as a meat eater. Fore discuses his family eating styles and how he believe he will raise his son. Food is key for every person, but what you eat and what you don't eat shapes who you are. Fore and his wife both had very particular views on being meat eaters. In a way they both hated what they were doing, but because of they way they were brought up they could not stop them from doing so. For this same reason he started researching on how he should raise is unborn child, meat eater or vegetarian.Fore starts off by talking about his grandmother and how her eating habits and cooking methods affected them as children. The grandmother, also known as â€Å"Greatest Chef who ever lived†, had been threw the depression and many vulnerable times. Fore tells us she had very strict rules on letting food go bad and throwing away expired food. She had seen such harsh times that she mad sure she always made the right amoun t of food so nothing would ever go to waste. The grandmother had seen the worst oftentimes, but she made sure her family ate well but did not take what they have for granted.Fore believes many people do not understand what and whom they are eating. He also falls under this category; he does not count himself out. Offers talks about how people have pet dogs and view them as a part of family, but on the other hand cook and eat a chicken. He tries to grasp this idea that has been passed down generation after generation but he cannot come to a solid conclusion on why this happens. And with his new born on the way he is looking into if he wants to pass on these beliefs to his child or to change what has been passed down and start something new.

Enviromental tobacco science essays

Enviromental tobacco science essays Cigarette smoking is not only just hazardous to the smoker, but to the environment as well. Tobacco has been linked to at least 400,000 deaths in 2002 by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Between 30,000 and 60,000 of those deaths were as a result of being exposed to environmental tobacco smoke, also known as second hand smoke. Continuous exposure to ETS (environmental tobacco smoke) is strongly associated with respiratory effects, carcinogenic effects, and cardiovascular effects. Environmental tobacco smoke consists of two types of burning tobacco. The first form is what is known as sidestream smoke. Sidestream smoke is smoke that is released between puffs of a burning cigar or cigarette. The second form is known as mainstream smoke. Mainstream smoke is smoke that is exhaled by the smoker. Sidesteam smoke contains the same harsh chemicals that the smoker inhales, where as mainstream smoke is somewhat diluted by the smoker as it is inhaled before it is released. The chemicals found in environmental tobacco smoke are the same as the ones that are found in the tobacco itself. Some of these chemicals are known as carcinogens, which are cancer causing substances, mutagens, which are substances that promote genetic changes in cells, and developmental toxicants, which interfere with normal cell development. Tobacco smoke contains nicotine and carbon monoxide. All of these chemicals have adverse affects on the human body. One affect of environmental tobacco smoke is cancer. As a result of the chemicals nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are present in tobacco smoke being inhaled and reacting with proteins and enzymes that are found in the human body compounds known as carcinogens are produced which interfere with normal cell development and thus produces cancer cells. Carcinogenicty associated ...

Definition and Examples of Baby Talk

Definition and Examples of Baby Talk Baby talk refers to the simple language forms used by young children, or the modified form of speech often used by adults with young children. Also known as motherese or caregiver speech. Early research talked of motherese, notes Jean Aitchison. This left out fathers and friends, so caretaker speech became the fashionable term, later amended to caregiver speech, and in academic publications, to CDS child-directed speech Examples and Observations Eloise Robinson and John Redhead Froome, Jr. As I mounted the porch steps I could hear Miss Altheas voice through the open window. She was apparently, I regret to say, speaking to Mabel, for her words had a soft, cooing sound and were such that, were it not for the sake of veracity, I should be inclined to omit them. Is muvvers ittle cutey takin its ittle beauty nap after its din-din? Did it like its din-din? Good din-din with chicken in it for ittle cutey baby! Thats right, take its ittle beauty nap till its muvver turns down. She wont be longwont be long! Muvvers ittle sleepin beauty, ittle cutey beauty! There was more of the same or a similar, variety to which my decisive ring at the door-bell put a hasty end. –Dead Dog, 1918 Lawrence Balter Linguists who have studied the structure of baby talk words have pointed out that there are some typical sound change rules that relate the baby talk word to its adult equivalent. For instance, reduction of the word to a shorter form is common, as is reduplication of the short form, hence, words such as din din and bye bye. It is not clear, however, how some baby talk words were derived: no simple rule explains how rabbits turned into bunnies.Although there is a traditional baby talk vocabulary, almost any word in English can be turned into a baby talk word by the addition of a diminutive ending, -ie: foot becomes footie, shirt becomes shirtie, and so forth. These diminutive endings convey affectionate as well as size connotations. –Parenthood in America., 2000 Sara Thorne Baby words like doggie or moo-cow do not help a child to learn language more efficiently. The reduplication of sounds in words like baba and dada, on the other hand, does enable babies to communicate because the words are easy to say. –Mastering Advanced English Language, 2008 Charles A. Ferguson [T]he reduplication in baby talk is generally separate and unrelated to the use in the normal language. Reduplication can probably be regarded as a feature of baby talk throughout the world. –Baby Talk in Six Languages, 1996 J. Madeleine Nash When speaking to babies, Stanford University psychologist Anne Fernald has found, mothers and fathers from many cultures change their speech patterns in the same peculiar ways. They put their faces very close to the child, she reports. They use shorter utterances, and they speak in an unusually melodious fashion. –Fertile Minds, 1997 Jean Aitchison Caregiver speech can be odd. Some parents are more concerned with truth than with language. The ill-formed Daddy hat on might meet with approval, Yes, thats right, if daddy was wearing a hat. But the well-formed Daddys got a hat on might meet with disapproval, No, thats wrong, if daddy wasnt wearing a hat. You might expect children to grow up telling the truth, but speaking ungrammatically, as some early researchers pointed out. In fact, the opposite happens. –The Language Web: The Power and Problem of Words, 1997 Debra L. Roter and Judith A. Hall Caporael (1981) focused on the use of displaced baby talk to the institutionalized elderly. Baby talk is a simplified speech pattern with distinctive paralinguistic features of high pitch and exaggerated intonation contour that is usually associated with speech to young children. More than 22% of speech to residents in one nursing home was identified as baby talk. Further, even talk from caregivers to the elderly that was not identified as baby talk was more likely to be judged as directed toward a child than was talk between caregivers. The investigators concluded that this phenomenon is widespread and that baby talk directed toward elderly adults was not a result of fine tuning of speech to individual needs or characteristics of a particular patient, but rather a function of social stereotyping of the elderly. –Doctors Talking With Patients/Patients Talking With Doctors, 2006 Topher Grace (as Eric) You know, mom, there comes an age in a boys life when the baby talk stops working. Yeah, when it does, it just gives a boy the urge to kill. –That 70s Show, 2006

Marquis de Lafayette, French and American Revolutionary

Marquis de Lafayette, French and American Revolutionary Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette (September 6, 1757–May 20, 1834) was a French aristocrat who gained fame as an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. Arriving in North America in 1777, he quickly formed a bond with General George Washington and initially served as an aide to the American leader. Proving a skilled and dependable commander, Lafayette earned greater responsibility as the conflict progressed and played a key part in obtaining aid from France for the American cause. Fast Facts: Marquis de Lafayette Known For: French aristocrat who fought as an officer for the Continental Army in the American Revolution, and later, the French RevolutionBorn: September 6, 1757 in Chavaniac, FranceParents: Michel du Motier and Marie de La Rivià ¨reDied: May 20, 1834 in Paris, FranceEducation: Collà ¨ge du Plessis and the Versailles AcademySpouse: Marie Adrienne Franà §oise de Noailles (m. 1774)Children: Henriette du Motier, Anastasie Louise Pauline du Motier, Georges Washington Louis Gilbert du Motier, Marie Antoinette Virginie du Motier Returning home after the war, Lafayette served in a central role during the early years of the French Revolution and helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Falling from favor, he was jailed for five years before being released in 1797. With the Bourbon Restoration in 1814, Lafayette began a long career as a member of the Chamber of Deputies. Early Life Born September 6, 1757, at Chavaniac, France, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette was the son of Michel du Motier and Marie de La Rivià ¨re. A long-established military family, an ancestor had served with Joan of Arc at the Siege of Orleans during the Hundred Years War. A colonel in the French Army, Michel fought in the Seven Years War and was killed by a cannonball at the Battle of Minden in August 1759. Raised by his mother and grandparents, the young marquis was sent to Paris for education at the Collà ¨ge du Plessis and the Versailles Academy. While in Paris, Lafayettes mother died. Gaining military training, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Musketeers of the Guard on April 9, 1771. Three years later, he married Marie Adrienne Franà §oise de Noailles on April 11, 1774. In the Army Through Adriennes dowry he received a promotion to captain in the Noailles Dragoons Regiment. After their marriage, the young couple lived near Versailles while Lafayette completed his schooling at the Acadà ©mie de Versailles. While training at Metz in 1775, Lafayette met the Comte de Broglie, commander of the Army of the East. Taking a liking to the young man, de Broglie invited him to join the Freemasons. Through his affiliation in this group, Lafayette learned of the tensions between Britain and its American colonies. By participating in the Freemasons and other thinking groups in Paris, Lafayette became an advocate for the rights of man and the abolition of slavery. As the conflict in the colonies evolved into open warfare, he came to believe that the ideals of the American cause closely reflected his own. Coming  to America In December 1776, with the American Revolution raging, Lafayette lobbied to go to America. Meeting with American agent Silas Deane, he accepted an offer to enter American service as a major general. Learning of this, his father-in-law, Jean de Noailles, had Lafayette assigned to Britain as he did not approve of Lafayettes American interests. During a brief posting in London, he was received by King George III and met several future antagonists, including Major General Sir Henry Clinton. Returning to France, he obtained aid from de Broglie and Johann de Kalb to advance his American ambitions. Learning of this,  de Noailles sought aid from King Louis XVI who issued a decree banning French officers from serving in America. Though forbidden by King Louis XVI to go, Lafayette purchased a ship, Victoire, and evaded efforts to detain him. Reaching Bordeaux, he boarded Victoire and put to sea on April 20, 1777. Landing near Georgetown, South Carolina, on June 13, Lafayette briefly stayed with Major Benjamin Huger before proceeding to Philadelphia. Arriving, Congress initially rebuffed him as they were tired of Deane sending French glory seekers. After offering to serve without pay, and aided by his Masonic connections, Lafayette received his commission but it was dated July 31, 1777, rather than the date of his agreement with Deane and he was not assigned a unit. For these reasons, he nearly returned home; however, Benjamin Franklin dispatched a letter to General George Washington asking the American commander to accept the young Frenchman as an aide-de-camp. The two first met on August 5, 1777, at a dinner in Philadelphia and immediately formed a lasting rapport.   First meeting of the Marquis de Lafayette and George Washington, 1777. Library of Congress Into the Fight Accepted onto Washingtons staff, Lafayette first saw action at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. Outflanked by the British, Washington allowed Lafayette to join Major General John Sullivans men. While attempting to rally Brigadier General Thomas Conways Third Pennsylvania Brigade, Lafayette was wounded in the leg but did not seek treatment until an orderly retreat was organized. For his actions, Washington cited him for bravery and military ardour and recommended him for divisional command. Briefly leaving the army, Lafayette traveled to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to recuperate from his wound. Recovering, he assumed command of Major General Adam Stephens division after that general was relieved following the Battle of Germantown. With this force, Lafayette saw action in New Jersey while serving under Major General Nathanael Greene.  This included winning a victory at the Battle of Gloucester on November 25 which saw his troops defeat British forces under Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis. Rejoining the army at Valley Forge, Lafayette was asked by Major General Horatio Gates and the Board of War to proceed to Albany to organize an invasion of Canada. Before leaving, Lafayette alerted Washington about his suspicions regarding Conways efforts to have him removed from command of the army. Arriving at Albany, he found that there were too few men present for an invasion and after negotiating an alliance with the Oneidas he returned to Valley Forge. Rejoining Washingtons army, Lafayette was critical of the boards decision to attempt an invasion of Canada during the winter. In May 1778, Washington dispatched Lafayette with 2,200 men to ascertain British intentions outside Philadelphia. Further Campaigns Aware of Lafayettes presence, the British marched out of the city with 5,000 men in an effort to capture him. In the resulting Battle of Barren Hill, Lafayette was skillfully able to extract his command and rejoin Washington. The following month, he saw action at the Battle of Monmouth as Washington attempted to attack Clinton as he withdrew to New York. In July, Greene and Lafayette were dispatched to Rhode Island to aid Sullivan with his efforts to expel the British from the colony. The operation centered on cooperation with a French fleet led Admiral Comte de dEstaing. This was not forthcoming as dEstaing departed for Boston to repair his ships after they were damaged in a storm. This action angered the Americans as they felt that they had been abandoned by their ally. Racing to Boston, Lafayette worked to smooth things over after a riot resulting from dEstaings actions erupted. Concerned about the alliance, Lafayette asked for leave to return to France to ensure its continuance. Granted, he arrived in February 1779 and was briefly detained for his earlier disobedience to the king. Virginia Yorktown Working with Franklin, Lafayette lobbied for additional troops and supplies. Granted 6,000 men under General Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau, he returned to America in May 1781. Sent to Virginia by Washington, he conducted operations against the traitor Benedict Arnold and shadowed Cornwallis army as it moved north. Nearly trapped at the Battle of Green Spring in July, Lafayette monitored British activities until the arrival of Washingtons army in September. Taking part in the Siege of Yorktown, Lafayette was present at the British surrender. Return to France Sailing home to France in December 1781, Lafayette was received at Versailles and promoted to field marshal. After aiding in planning an aborted expedition to the West Indies, he worked with Thomas Jefferson to develop trade agreements. Returning to America in 1782, he toured the country and received several honors. Remaining active in American affairs, he routinely met with the new countrys representatives in France. French Revolution On December 29, 1786, King Louis XVI appointed Lafayette to the Assembly of Notables which was convened to address the nations worsening finances. Arguing for spending cuts, he was one who called for the convening of the Estates General. Elected to represent the nobility from Riom, he was present when the Estates General opened on May 5, 1789. Following the Oath of the Tennis Court and the creation of the National Assembly, Lafayette joined the new body and on July 11, 1789, he presented a draft of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Lieutenant General Marquis de Lafayette, 1791. Public Domain Appointed to lead the new National Guard on July 15, Lafayette worked to maintain order. Protecting the king during the March on Versailles in October, he diffused the situation- although the crowd demanded that Louis move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. He was again called to the Tuileries on February 28, 1791, when several hundred armed aristocrats surrounded the palace in an effort to defend the king. Dubbed the Day of Daggers, Lafayettes men disarmed the group and arrested many of them. Later Life After a failed escape attempt by the king that summer, Lafayettes political capital began to erode. Accused of being a royalist, he sunk further after the Champ de Mars Massacre when National Guardsmen fired into a crowd. Returning home in 1792, he was soon appointed to lead one of the French armies during the War of the First Coalition. Working for peace, he sought to shut down the radical clubs in Paris. Branded a traitor, he attempted to flee to the Dutch Republic but was captured by the Austrians. Marquis de Lafayette, 1825. National Portrait Gallery Held in prison, he was finally released by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797. Largely retiring from public life, he accepted a seat in the Chamber of Deputies in 1815. In 1824, he made one final tour of America and was hailed as a hero. Six years later, he declined the dictatorship of France during the July Revolution and Louis-Phillipe was crowned king. The first person granted honorary United States citizenship, Lafayette died on May 20, 1834, at the age of 76. Sources Unger, Harlow Giles. Lafayette. New York: Wiley, 2003.Levasseur, A. Lafayette in America in 1824 and 1825; or, Journal of a Voyage to the United States. Trans. Godman, John D. Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1829.Kramer, Lloyd S. Lafayette and the Historians: Changing Symbol, Changing Needs, 1834–1984. Historical Reflections / Rà ©flexions Historiques 11.3 (1984): 373–401. Print.Lafayette in Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Personal Identities in an Age of Revolutions. Raleigh: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.

Amiri Barakas Dutchman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Amiri Barakas Dutchman - Essay Example Also, mutually make the summit that sexual relationships across racial lines do not increase understanding, nor should it put in to any sense of ability about the life of the other. In the Dutchman, we bystander a subway ride with Clay, early-20s middle class black chap, and Lula, a closer to 30, stimulating white women (Freeman 45). All through the engage in hobby Lula taunts Clay, hints in the path of the apparition of sex, claims to recognize about his "type", then subsequently moves next to affronts and "Uncle Tom" derisions, swelling the panorama significantly. Basically, at its core, Clay is spokesperson of black assimilationists, and Lula might be any white noninterventionist who declares to know how black populace are and how they should be, and Amiri Baraka finally seems to have no survival for furthermore lone of them (Freeman 46). If the Dutchman is bursting of antipathy, the Slave takes that theme to a whole unrelated level. In this play, we have 3 typescript Grace and Ea sley, an ashen broadminded link; and Walker a black chap that we are initial opened to as intoxicated with a weapon, but later on learn out that he is the earlier-husband of Grace (Freeman 48). In the backdrop blasts choose a pin number present or prospect combat amid blacks in addition to whites. Walker is the person in charge of an aggressive radical black release movement whose ultimate goal seems to be to be applicable all white people (Freeman 49). We learn that Grace had left Walker years prior to for the very simple reason that if his aim was to slay all ashen people, and she ensued to be ashen, then she might not estimate herself safe (Freeman 50). Even though Walker is a killer, he is still clearly a sufferer in this play, since the need for destructive ethnic war could only happen out of decades of compulsion without respite (Freeman 51). The vitriol builds in this appoint in recreation in such a technique that at hand is only lone predictable completing (Freeman 52). A pr opensity observes Baraka's plays as the apotheosis  of the communication of the Black Arts association can sometimes unsighted us to the numerous complexities of his job (O'neal 16). One viewpoint from which we can attitude his job is to observe it not as the uncomplicated, straight-forward personification of the thoughts of "jingoism" and "upheaval," or as an phrase of a "true black uniqueness," but as an attempt to extricate the received hostility between a combination of binary group such as aesthetic/political affairs, black/white, entity/community, pretense/face, and Europe/Africa by concomitantly occupying a fundamentally altered viewpoint and privileging marginalized circumstances (O'neal 18). Dutchman has been one of the majorities well-liked of Jones/Baraka's plays and consequently one that has received copious serious attentiveness (O'neal 19). In a significant and then-inclusive study of Baraka's job, Baraka: The rebel and the disguise, Kimberly W. Benston draws in the deed of the slot in in recreation an archetypal tragic prototype: "the drop from asset through hamartia, and from hamartia to calamity (O'neal 20). Through tracing the classic tragic first of its kind in Clay's fall, Benston places him historically as a pre-revolutionary fatality who is also the harbinger of eventual black accomplishment (O'neal 27). In a later dissertation, "Performing Blackness," Benston sketches two dissimilar theories of black selfhood  and the arrangement of that selfhood by and in the "play" of verbal communication. He distinctions Ralph Ellison's hallucination of blackness as an continuously mediated sign with what he proposes is Baraka's more "indispensable" figuration  of blackness. "For Baraka," Benston articulates The plot of Dutchman is exposed and bleak. Other

Small & Medium Sized Enterprises in an International Environment Essay - 1

Small & Medium Sized Enterprises in an International Environment - Essay Example With improvement in data and globalization of markets, communication technologies, also other auxiliary happenings, more SMEs to take part dynamically in worldwide markets than ever before (Craig and Douglas, 1996 and Bell, 1995). In numerous countries, such companies are actually the going by force behind an important percentage of future economic prosperity and export growth (Gupta, 1989; Economist, 1993). In common, small enterprises are essential. SMEs comprise over 95 percent of companies supply about 50 percent of the total worth supplemented over the world and, counting on the country, develop 60 percent to 90 percent of all fresh jobs (OECD, 1997, the United Nations, 1993). While they are not historic been affiliated with worldwide enterprise, based on empirical investigations of tendencies in 18 developed countries, the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) documented that SMEs now account for around a quarter of exports in the majority industrialized countries (OECD, 1997). ... Pioneering international startups are now an important part of the development of nationwide exports in numerous countries (eg, Economist, 1993; Verity, 1994; Luostarinen et al, 1994). In latest years, many tendencies discovered out what to export and other worldwide engagement powerfully viable alternative for SME businesses. Smaller companies are furthermore leveraged by the forces of globalization, encompassing a breakdown of investment and trade barriers, and far-reaching undertakings of big transnational corporations. Increased cross-national competition places force on SMEs to internationalize. This, connected with expanding possibilities for the realization of overseas markets and the opportunity to earnings from a boost in the dimensions and scope of their undertakings, has conceived numerous incentives for little firms to internationalization (Oviatt and McDougall, 1995). Czechoslovak SMEs In the early on 20th century, the Czech Republic was the most industrially evolved par t of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, vying commercially and technologically the most sophisticated nations in Europe. The new population has a powerful tradition of accomplished craftsmen in the construct of mechanism and other industrialists and entrepreneurs a large know-how in exporting these goods. Revenues were high, and well-developed finances organized to close the economic and financial ties with remainder of Europe. In the interwar years, the significance of the developed part in the finances of Czechoslovakia is certainly growing. Back in 1921, 33.8 percent of the employed populations were occupied in developed occupations. Estimates display

Report on Aspects of the Contemporary Banking Sector - Risk and Essay

Report on Aspects of the Contemporary Banking Sector - Risk and Profitability Analysis - Essay Example According to the Sunday Times, HSBC’s commitment to sustainability has been recognized thus listed in the Best Green Companies List (2010). RBS is a retail banking institution under the RGS Group; it provides banking services including loans, deposits accounts and insurance. It is the largest bank in UK and the fourth largest bank globally. RBS is listed as the second best for customer satisfaction among the major high street banks. Barclays bank is another major bank having the largest network of ATMs in the region. It is the first UK bank to give local business customers access to online banking services to check their supplier credit ratings as well as the first bank to announce mass crush of contactless- enabled debit cards in the UK banking sector. The retail banking sector of Barclays offers loans, deposits accounts, insurance as well as Forex trading services for its customers. Lloyds TSB, a major banking network in the UK is a merger between Lloyds Bank and TSB thus fo rming one of the largest domestic banking forces in UK. The bank has over 3000 branches globally and are authorized and regulated by the Financial Services Authority. Lloyds TSB retail banking services include credit cards, deposit accounts, credit cards, and loans. b. By using at least 4-5 years of financial data, identify, calculate and interpret key profitability and risk ratios. Perform the analysis for each individual bank and then compare their performances and explain which bank has been the most effective in effectively managing profitability and exposure to risk. Modern banks focus on two important areas of revenue generation; loan provision to customers for an interest rate and providing other services including money transfer or exchange rates for a certain commission and other non-interest incomes and fees. This paper analyses the shareholder’s economic value creation using the four major banks; Barclays plc, HSBC, Lloyds TSB and RBS within a 5 year period. In ord er to analyze the business practices and activities of the banks and how they influence shareholder’s stock market value, we use both the external and internal information including the auditor’s annual financial reports, stock market data, and designed control variables. By applying the traditional accounting; ROA and ROE together with the innovative EVA methods to measure each bank’s prospective performance, and regress it against the stock market returns and other control values, one can be able to understand their explanatory power more so with regards to individual shareholder’s economic value. The results obtained were both traditional and innovative accounting methods and they explain the variations of the stock returns for the four British banks. Over the half year decade, there are signs of revenue reduction in the major banking industries. Lloyds TSB trades at a 4 per cent premium over the book value whereas RBS and Barclays trade at a discount to the book value of 32 per cent and 54 per cent, respectively. HSBC is the only UK rival trading at a premium to the book value. However, HSBC is physically diversified, and generates majority of its income outside Europe, more so in Asia. Since many American and European banks have their balance sheets significantly overstuffed with intangible goodwill and assets, tangible book value is of more relevance for comparing against the individual banks' market capitalizations. During the last half of 2008, market turmoil

New Technologies, New Dependencies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

New Technologies, New Dependencies - Essay Example According to Griffiths, computers have enhanced communication on a global spectrum; this has happened not only because of the improved functionality of different computers, but also due to social media tools that have transformed the world into a global village (Griffiths). The development of computers has led to an increasing human dependency on the micro-chip. People hold various opinions regarding the development of this device. Many of them feel that it is a great way and it has proven to benefit many people and has revolutionized the entire world. However, others hold opinions against this device and feel that human beings have shown too much dependency on the computer. Technology endeavors have led to increase in business returns, enhanced consumer relationships, and have raised the standards of competition to the benefit of the market and have highlighted the positivity of the computer device in this era (Lai). The history of computers goes back to the time when the Abacus was used in 300 BC used by the Babylonians. Initially, in the abacus pebbles were used for counting. The word â€Å"calculus† is a Latin word which means pebbles. Human beings were the initial computers so to speak. They would carry out tasks that now computers are programmed to do. Also the computer is developed in a similar way like the human being in which a hard drive, stores memory similar to the human brain, the Central Processing Unit plays the role of the human heart, making the machine work. Human beings wanted work to be done fast, without any chaos, in an organized and systematic manner. Inventors had been searching for a way to do work fast and flawlessly. This actually led to the invention of the computer, that is work is done in a mechanized way. In 1936, the first proper freely programmable computer was invented. It was invented by Konrad Zuse. Slowly and gradually computer production developed, and in 1953 IBM (International Business Machine) became the latest co mputer system. Since then, there is constant development and improvement in various computer systems, and scientists are more and more focused on trying to develop the most user-friendly device possible. In 1976 Steve Jobs set up his company with the name of Apple and stars to produce the first personal computer kits. Apple kept improving and bringing out better and more advanced and latest models of computers. For Apple, The new â€Å"in† thing that has now come into the market is the touch. IPhones, IPads and IPods are the latest gadgets produced. Then, in 1985, Microsoft Windows made its grand entry into the computer market and has made itself a huge name and earned a major chunk of the market share. By that time, a subtle competition began between the Apple and Microsoft who hold together most of the market share in today’s world. In the 1990’s, particularly from 1992-1998, real businesses experienced an increase on an average of 44% per year on computer pri ces. Computer companies would sell their hardware’s and software’s convincing buyer that this was the latest and most reliable parts that promised improved productivity (Whelan). Now coming to the question of why there is an argument between people who feel that computers are an advantage opposed to those who feel it is a nuisance. Well, people have made it into one because of too much dependency on the device. But is there any other

China's growth contradicts the links between democracy and growth Essay

China's growth contradicts the links between democracy and growth. Discuss - Essay Example Alongside democracy, capital and labor are some of the critical factors considered to have a significant effect on economic growth in the long run. There have been misconceptions that China’s economic growth is linked to the fact that China is a one-party state that upholds the authoritarian form of government. These mistaken views have influenced other countries to believe that authoritarian rule contributes hugely to economic growth, although China’s growth is tied to liberalization of political and economic reforms, which have led to reduced authoritarianism. China’s growth contradicts the links between democracy and growth China’s growth contradiction with democracy has brought about complication in the fact that the world’s richest countries attribute their success and growth to existence of democracy in their systems. The belief that economic development are linked to democracy is getting weaker as authoritarian regimes like China are proving that they have the capability of achieving economic growth without putting any efforts on political democracies. However, it remains a fact that high per capita income in democratic states has a significant effect in achieving stable and increasing economic growth. Over the last twenty-five years, China's has maintained tremendous economic growth with rigid political aspects that have remained closely tied to authoritarian form of governance. This stagnation in political reforms has negated the concept of economic growth, resulting in educated citizens who later pressure the most authoritarian governments to allow for democracies in which they themselves can exercise control over political situations for the benefit of the entire country. Claims that democracy does not contribute to economic development arise with respect to government’s function of representing the common needs of all the citizens. Different requirements, views, and opinions of different citizens necessitate the government to function independently and represent the collective views of all citizens other than needs of a few individuals. Democracy existence is said to be a hindrance to the independence a government in fostering economic growth and effective citizen representation. The government is given the responsibility of collecting taxes and putting the revenue into productive use with respect to aggregate preferences of citizens. Therefore, democracies may become obstacles for government’s rational functionality; however, multiparty systems in voting in governments may represent rational preferences that meet a variety of conditions to a limited proportion. Moreover, democracy may reflect a system of governance that meets requirements of citizens but does not foster aggregate preferences such as economic prosperity. However, autonomy of the government in countries like China only infringes on political freedom and not economic freedom. Lack of political freedom is depicted by the single party governance where the government places independent emphasis on liberalization of foreign and private investment. Usually, authoritarian governments that have liberalized their economies are statistically proved to economically

A Policy Brief Addressing a Significant Health Problem Facing Essay

A Policy Brief Addressing a Significant Health Problem Facing California - Essay Example Yet as a society, we are not making adequate investments necessary to ensure the health and well-being of all of our youth. During adolescence, young people confront new issues that affect their physical and mental health. These could be attributed to a number of varying factors. Similarly, young adults continue to experience many of the same challenges to their health and well-being. The health issues of teens and young adults are easy to overlook because they are not, for the most part, acute illnesses or chronic diseases. Instead, they are largely behavioral and social issues. Unlike the issues related to general health conditions that confront the society at large, adolescent’s health problems relate more to the lacuna in the societal interventions. Adolescents confront health issues that have multi-dimensional characteristics and implications. Addressing these issues requires change at multiple levels—from service delivery, to funding priorities, to community resources and environments, and, more fundamentally, to the behavior and attitudes of California’s adults. The World Health Organization’s definition can be taken as the standard in all areas of public health. According to the World Health Organization, health is defined as more than just the â€Å"absence of disease,† but rather a state of â€Å"complete physical, mental, and social well-being.† This broad definition has a lot of significance to adolescent health. Adolescent health encompasses not only the prevention and treatment of disease and disability. It features behavioral and social issues on an equal scale. Issues of safety, social relationships, self-esteem, education and skill development all figure into good health of adolescents. Thus, to make progress in improving adolescent health, a combination of perspectives and approaches is needed. Besides the disease components, interventions must address societal and behavioral

New Technologies, New Dependencies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

New Technologies, New Dependencies - Essay Example According to Griffiths, computers have enhanced communication on a global spectrum; this has happened not only because of the improved functionality of different computers, but also due to social media tools that have transformed the world into a global village (Griffiths). The development of computers has led to an increasing human dependency on the micro-chip. People hold various opinions regarding the development of this device. Many of them feel that it is a great way and it has proven to benefit many people and has revolutionized the entire world. However, others hold opinions against this device and feel that human beings have shown too much dependency on the computer. Technology endeavors have led to increase in business returns, enhanced consumer relationships, and have raised the standards of competition to the benefit of the market and have highlighted the positivity of the computer device in this era (Lai). The history of computers goes back to the time when the Abacus was used in 300 BC used by the Babylonians. Initially, in the abacus pebbles were used for counting. The word â€Å"calculus† is a Latin word which means pebbles. Human beings were the initial computers so to speak. They would carry out tasks that now computers are programmed to do. Also the computer is developed in a similar way like the human being in which a hard drive, stores memory similar to the human brain, the Central Processing Unit plays the role of the human heart, making the machine work. Human beings wanted work to be done fast, without any chaos, in an organized and systematic manner. Inventors had been searching for a way to do work fast and flawlessly. This actually led to the invention of the computer, that is work is done in a mechanized way. In 1936, the first proper freely programmable computer was invented. It was invented by Konrad Zuse. Slowly and gradually computer production developed, and in 1953 IBM (International Business Machine) became the latest co mputer system. Since then, there is constant development and improvement in various computer systems, and scientists are more and more focused on trying to develop the most user-friendly device possible. In 1976 Steve Jobs set up his company with the name of Apple and stars to produce the first personal computer kits. Apple kept improving and bringing out better and more advanced and latest models of computers. For Apple, The new â€Å"in† thing that has now come into the market is the touch. IPhones, IPads and IPods are the latest gadgets produced. Then, in 1985, Microsoft Windows made its grand entry into the computer market and has made itself a huge name and earned a major chunk of the market share. By that time, a subtle competition began between the Apple and Microsoft who hold together most of the market share in today’s world. In the 1990’s, particularly from 1992-1998, real businesses experienced an increase on an average of 44% per year on computer pri ces. Computer companies would sell their hardware’s and software’s convincing buyer that this was the latest and most reliable parts that promised improved productivity (Whelan). Now coming to the question of why there is an argument between people who feel that computers are an advantage opposed to those who feel it is a nuisance. Well, people have made it into one because of too much dependency on the device. But is there any other

A Policy Brief Addressing a Significant Health Problem Facing Essay

A Policy Brief Addressing a Significant Health Problem Facing California - Essay Example Yet as a society, we are not making adequate investments necessary to ensure the health and well-being of all of our youth. During adolescence, young people confront new issues that affect their physical and mental health. These could be attributed to a number of varying factors. Similarly, young adults continue to experience many of the same challenges to their health and well-being. The health issues of teens and young adults are easy to overlook because they are not, for the most part, acute illnesses or chronic diseases. Instead, they are largely behavioral and social issues. Unlike the issues related to general health conditions that confront the society at large, adolescent’s health problems relate more to the lacuna in the societal interventions. Adolescents confront health issues that have multi-dimensional characteristics and implications. Addressing these issues requires change at multiple levels—from service delivery, to funding priorities, to community resources and environments, and, more fundamentally, to the behavior and attitudes of California’s adults. The World Health Organization’s definition can be taken as the standard in all areas of public health. According to the World Health Organization, health is defined as more than just the â€Å"absence of disease,† but rather a state of â€Å"complete physical, mental, and social well-being.† This broad definition has a lot of significance to adolescent health. Adolescent health encompasses not only the prevention and treatment of disease and disability. It features behavioral and social issues on an equal scale. Issues of safety, social relationships, self-esteem, education and skill development all figure into good health of adolescents. Thus, to make progress in improving adolescent health, a combination of perspectives and approaches is needed. Besides the disease components, interventions must address societal and behavioral

The United States Never Had a Closed-door Policy Essay Example for Free

The United States Never Had a Closed-door Policy Essay Lawmakers and policymakers in the United States can continue to enhance American diversity through immigration.   As the world moves toward becoming a global society, American diversity will ehance the global positioning of the United States.   However, careful management of immigration must remain a top priority.   The United States must have stringent immigration policy to prevent entry of undesirable aliens.   But the country should not close its door to good foreigners who want to enhance and develop their talents in the USA.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   America   has never turned good people away.   The USA has always been open to new ideas from others.   The US constitution is the product of a synthesis of divergent inclinations, from which comes the most effective constitution in history.   It has always been, and will continue to be, US   policy to give those who have the resolve to succeed every opportunity to thrive in this country. Persons aspiring to become US citizens are generally the cream of the crop in their home countries.   Most are very successful in their fields of expertise.   They are prepared to compete globally and will most likely be successful in the USA.   Since they are already top achievers   they will enhance the competitive edge of this country.     Just as American Blacks, who came here as slaves, are doing well in every field, it is important to remember that most Americans are descendants of   foreign countries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A closed door Policy is not the American way.   Americans are naturally competitive.   The USA has prevailed in nearly every war or battle it has recently engaged in.   The USA has experienced several economic depressions, always recovering successfully.   The USA is not intimidated by the influx of foreigners with various backgrounds, training, and experiences.   The USA can prevail against any competitor because US citizens have a competitive edge.   These experiences have sharpened the USA’s instinctive ability to prevail against any adversary.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In this age of globalization Americans must not hide in cocoons.  Ã‚   To do so would be counterproductive to maintaining this country’s competitive edge.   The advent of the internet has placed everyone on equal footing with others.   Therefore the USA is able to face competition head-on and remain at the top of the global competitive scale.   Being the primary world super power, the whole world looks to the USA for guidance and as a role model in international affairs.   If the USA puts the brakes on its own national and international policies, the rest world will slow down with it.   The problem is that several countries are waiting and willing to quickly assume the role of world leader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of these aspiring countries is China which already has political, economic, and diplomatic clout with many countries.   China maintained a closed door policy for centuries, eventually finding out the hard way that it was counterproductive.   Now that China’s doors have been opened to outsiders, the nation is experiencing an economic boom unlike any that has been recorded in China’s history. In fact, some economic leaders in other countries are of Chinese descent.   While some Chinese immigrants have attained citizenship status in and adopted foreign countries as their home, their loyalty remains with China.   This gives China a major advantage in dealing with aggressive US policy toward other countries.   Therefore the USA must not be complacent in its role as world super power.   Nor can the US risk cultural isolation from the rest of the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This does not   mean that the USA   has to be liberal in screening prospective immigrants.   The USA   must retain its strict policy against illegal border crossings, especially since many illegal immigrants are instrumental in bringing drugs from Mexico and South America. Failure to secure our borders means that The USA will continue to lose the war on drugs while losing an important generation of Americans to those drugs.   It also means that the crushing burden of failed immigration and homeland security policies will continue to fall exclusively on the shoulders of working men and women.   Not only do illegal aliens, and those who employ them,   cost the nation tens of billions of dollars in social services, principally in health care and education, but they also depress wages for American citizens. (Dobbs 2005)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unskilled foreign labor must be minimized   because it is a   burden to health care programs.   Unskilled foreign labor also creates undue competition for local unskilled workers.   What the USA   needs is for those who have special skills and talents to help improve American society.   The Commission is concerned about unskilled workers in American society.   In an age in which unskilled workers have far too few opportunities available to them, and in which national welfare reform policies will require thousands more to find jobs, the Commission sees no justification for the continued entry of unskilled foreign workers. (Briggs 2001)    The United States must strike a delicate balance between maintaining a strict immigration policy and keeping the borders open to those who will enhance the nation’s reputation.   Americans must remember that that their diversity has helped this country through times of political and economic depression.   The United States continues to be the model for global citizenship. Therefore, policymakers must continue to create policies that enhance that position.   Finally, lawmakers must secure the borders so that the U.S. economy is not overrun with illegal activity and American social structures is not compromised by uncommited or unproductive residents.   The United States of America must be a union of people, from different races and nationalities, whose capabilities are synthesized to push this nation to further greatness.   Works Cited Briggs, Jr., Vernon M. American Unionism and U.S. Immigration Policy. Center for Immigration Studies.   Aug 2001. 1 Mar. 2008. http://www.cis.org/articles/2001/back 1001.pdf. Dobbs, Lou. U.S. policy on immigration is a tragic joke. Arizona Republic 28 Aug. 2005. 1 Mar. 2008 http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/ viewpoints/articles/0828dobbs0828.h tml.

Changing Role of HRM: The NHS

Changing Role of HRM: The NHS The Changing Role of Human Resource Management within the National Health Service: Feeling at Home in an Increasingly Complex Environment. Abstract In the context of a widespread programme of reform of the English National Health Service (NHS) this paper considers the changing role of Human Resources Management (HRM) within the service, and reports a study of the changing role of HRM in a large teaching hospital. Empirical research suggests that whilst the perception of the role and effectiveness of the HRM function remains varied, if managed correctly it is potentially capable of having a direct and beneficial impact upon service delivery. Introduction The reforms and changes within the National Health Service (NHS) and its management of staff and services has clearly been well documented, however research into the evaluation of these initiatives remains a neglected area. Walshe suggests that the reason behind this is that researchers do not have time to ‘painstakingly document and measure the progress and impacts of reform due to constant change caused by the initial ‘bright ideas having been poorly thought out (2002:106). Empirical research can though attempt to offer an understanding into the ‘complex relationships that exist between individuals and how they interpret policies within a wider social and cultural organisational context (Clarke 2006:202) and provide insight into the NHS managerial culture to examine how it ‘supports and facilitates the implementation of the recent wave of NHS reforms (Merali 2003:550). Through incorporating a review of the literature that surrounds the changing role of HRM w ithin the NHS and empirically based qualitative research, a comprehensive insight into the current context and position of Human Resource Management within an NHS Trust is given. Whilst such research will hopefully be of academic interest, perhaps more importantly in order for the NHS and other public services to be aware of the impact of reforms upon employees and thus on subsequent service delivery, an awareness of HRM practices and their implementation should be a necessity for practitioners (Edgar and Geare 2005). The Current Context of the NHS â€Å"†¦the NHS is unique. To name but a few of its characteristics, it is in the public sector, exceptionally large in terms of its resources, activities and numbers employed; domestic not international in its operations; its tasks are infinitely varied, complex and difficult; its goals are unclear; it is subject to an exceptionally wide range of political and economic influences; and it is an organisation uniquely and specially close to the hearts (metaphorically), minds and bodies (physically) of British people. It is run by ‘special kinds of people too: dedicated, yet often ambitious, highly qualified and skilled, often bloody-minded and usually tough-minded, yet also caring and even tender.†(Glover and Leopold 1996:256) The NHS is the largest employer in Europe, employing over a million clinical, infrastructure and support personnel (The Information Centre 2006). Whilst remaining close to the peoples heart in terms of its founding values of a universal and comprehensive health care with its service delivery freely and equally available to all in society (Rivett 1997; Talbot-Smith and Pollock 2006), it is also close to the peoples pockets, with billions of pounds having been invested into the NHS in the last ten years (Appelby 2007). In addition to providing a health service to the population, it is also claimed that ‘health and healthcare play a key role in generating social cohesion, productive workforce, employment and hence economic growth (Harrison 2005) and for this reason, as Bach notes, the means to reform health care systems effectively is an issue that confronts policy makers worldwide. (2001:1) As such, the challenges facing the NHS in terms of management, change and efficiency are i mportant to an audience far wider than the UK and those who use and work within the organisation. In consuming around  £50 billion per annum it is no wonder that successive British governments have attempted throughout the history of the NHS to dictate from the centre the ‘minutia of the NHSs activities. A key problem however is that due to the complexity of the organisation itself and the politics that surround it, the methods used are considered by many to consist merely of ‘a plethora of complicated targets and initiatives that confound those who are charged to implement them (Bradshaw 2003:90). In recognising the obvious public concern over the management, and expenditure, of the NHS both the previous Conservative and Labour governments and current New Labour invest considerable time, and tax-payers money, into attempting to improve the service. Yet it is considered increasingly apparent that in responding to health deficiencies ‘by throwing money at them to see the quick, comfortable resolution of the political conflict that these inevitably cause (Duncan -Smith 2002), continual change ‘for changes sake has become the focus at the expense of the ultimate ‘telos that created the health service (Kelly and Glover 1996:31). Changes in Management of the NHS Since its conception, it is clear that the NHS has undergone many changes, both structurally and ideologically, but it is since the reforms of the early 1980s that the focus of NHS management has attempted to move away from obvious ‘command and control techniques and towards local management with local responsibility and accountability not only to the government but to the public that ‘experience the service. It was subsequent to these reforms and as a result of the Griffiths Report and policies such as ‘Promoting Better Health, that ‘Working for Patients'(1989) was introduced which further emphasised the NHSs aims of better health care, choice, complaints procedures, patient information, and overarching quality. Currently a number of policy and management initiatives are transforming the structure and organisation of the NHS (Truss 2003). New Labour are heralding the benefits of ‘choice within the public services as a whole and many of the recent initiatives focus upon the ‘customer and the need for services to attract these customers and the money that they bring, to the extent that within the NHS ‘individual patient preference [is] determining where business will be placed (Bradshaw 2003:87). The logic behind this is claimed to be one of providing a new incentive for ‘providers to improve customer responsiveness, for if money follows patients and patients have a choice of service the power is with the people rather than in the hands of a previous monopolistic service provider (ibid). Such market incentives are driving NHS hospital trusts to perform more like businesses, with a corporate focus based upon meeting the demands of all the various stakeholders, and thus r equiring distinct business strategies which will account for all aspects of the organisation and services provided and ultimately ‘enhance their cash flow (Pollock 2004:218). With the establishment of Foundation Trusts, NHS Trusts which are perceived as high performers can gain Foundation Status, thus becoming corporate bodies, free from the controls of the strategic health authorities and accountable only to those whom they represent their own managers, staff, patients and local residents (Pollock 2004). The thinking behind this is seemingly one of moving away from what has been perceived as a ‘monolithic, inefficient bureaucracy to a system of individual services which are autonomous healthcare provider organisations that could be flexible, responsive and innovative (Walshe 2002:109). As the Department of Health states: â€Å"The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 establishes NHS Foundation Trusts as independent public benefit corporations modelled on co-operative and mutual traditions. Public benefit corporations are a new type of organisation, specially developed to reflect the unique aims and responsibilities of NHS Foundation Trusts. NHS Foundation Trusts exist to provide and develop services for NHS patients according to NHS principles and standards and are subject to NHS systems of inspection. Transferring ownership and accountability from Whitehall to the local community means that NHS Foundation Trusts are able to tailor their services to best meet the needs of the local population and tackle health inequalities more effectively.†(DoH 2007) Walshe considers the introduction of Foundation Trusts as providing organisational stability due to them reducing the ability of ‘future Secretaries of State for Health to reorganise the NHS every two or three years and thus allowing ‘meaningful service improvements to take place (2002:109). However, it is also recognised that this in turn could potentially cause problems as there will be ‘no guarantee of good management and governance resulting in the replacement of ‘one set of dysfunctional behaviours with another (ibid). Many interpret Foundation Trusts as forcing NHS trusts into having to respond flexibly to market forces similarly to private sector organisations, due to the public and political interest in the service it must also contend with the constant barrage of audits, inspections, monitoring, league tables and an increasingly demanding and knowledgeable public (Talbot-Smith and Pollock 2006). The NHS today can therefore be seen as remaining seemingly attached to the ideologies of the business world, and current government emphasis towards ‘modernisation suggests that the premise remains dominantly that: â€Å"†¦no organisational context is immune from the uncertainties of unrelenting change and that, as a result, all organisations public, private and voluntary need to develop similar norms and techniques of conduct: if they do not do so, they will not survive. Thus all organisations need to look to current ‘best practice†¦Government services are brought forward using the best and most modern techniques, to match the best of the private sector.†(Du Gay 2003:676) These government initiatives reflect notions that by improving management and employee satisfaction, the NHS could become both an efficient and effective business, able to satisfy these consumerist needs of the customer. For example, the policy ‘Improving Working Lives aimed to encourage NHS employers to ‘develop a range of policies and practices which support personal and professional development and enable employees to achieve a healthy work-life balance (DH 2000). These management strategies have been labelled within this sector as New Public Management (NPM) and are considered to mark a clear differentiation from the previous strategies of ‘an administered service to a managed service'(Bach, 2000:928). Flynn argues that NPM clearly incorporates all of the changes that have occurred within the NHS following the reorganisations and new rhetorics of the 1980 reforms and the essential components that NPM consists of are clearly visible: â€Å"†¦more active and accountable management; explicit standards, targets and measures for performance; a stress on results, quality and outcomes; the break-up of large units into smaller decentralised agencies; more competition and a contract culture; more flexibility in the terms and conditions of employment; increased managerial control over the workforce and efficiency in resource allocation.†(1991:28) With the introduction of this managerialist emphasis in the NHS it has been suggested that there has been an investment of ‘faith in managers. This faith has been based on the supposition that the ‘language, techniques and values of managerialism were, and are, ‘the only way actually to deliver change; thus an ‘unparalleled position of ‘power and authority has been placed upon public managers (Exworthy and Halford 1999:5-6). Such managerialism, and its values and beliefs is based upon the assumption that ‘better management will prove an efficient solvent for a wide range of economic and social ills (Pollitt 1993:1), and in the case of the NHS these ‘ills are well documented in terms of a lack of capital and thus a shortage of resources yet with a need to provide an increasingly efficient and ‘quality driven service. However, the notion of managerialism must be used with caution. ‘Faith in managers can be perceived as politicians having faith in their own management in that they have failed to ever relinquish control, instead taking even more tight control through the implementation of numerous health policies and operational procedures. Such a need to keep close reigns on the management of the NHS suggests a deep mistrust in the capabilities of the public servants within it rather than a desire to allow it its freedom. Overall it is clear that the NHS is very complex for a range of reasons not least because of its complexity and variety of its duties, the range of skills it needs to draw on, the difficulty of reconciling competing priorities, the cost of healthcare, and the way the NHS has been stitched into the political fabric of England. From an organisational perspective too it is a hybrid mix of hierarchy, bureaucracy, market and network. To efficiently manage such an organisation is therefore a highly complex and unrelenting challenge. HRM in the NHS The role of HRM pre-reforms was mainly focused on administration and support with a lack of defined responsibility. Named Personnel rather than HR, the function was used to deal with general staffing issues of terms and conditions of employment, payment and holiday options, individual and local staffing issues and the well known ‘hiring and firing that it remains renowned for. From Personnel Managers came HR professionals, HR departments, and increasingly HR directors with voting rights on the Executive Boards of NHS Trusts. This has been considered a result of the changes that stemmed from the Griffiths reforms and continue today, and due to a particular focus on corporate business ideals, from which a clear, but nonetheless controversial role was carved out for a function that dealt with the management of the increasingly important resource of people. ‘†¦the effect of the reforms was to stimulate management to review custom and practice and historical staffing patterns, with a view to achieving better value for money. In this context the HR function was caught up in the continuing tension between those health care professionals who focused primarily on patient care, and those managers responsible for cost-effective use of resources but constrained by a lack of clinical knowledge'(Buchan 2000:320). The current role of HRM in the NHS, its status within the service, and its success as an effective function has become especially important at this time where ‘human resources are considered the key to not only improved staff performance but also competitive advantage (Bach 2001; Clarke 2006). Despite the managerialist rhetoric that clearly surrounds the drive for increasing the role of HR, on a more simple note it is little wonder that such an emphasis has been placed upon the HR function considering the cost of staffing in the NHS of the  £19 billion cash increase in the NHS from 2004/5 to 2007/8 the increases in staff pay ‘swallowed up around 34% (Appelby 2007). To add to this, the growing importance of the function is particularly clear in situations where individual NHS trusts are being granted greater financial and operational independence within the increasingly competitive, consumer driven market that the government is creating through such initiatives as Found ation Trust Status. Barnett et als research demonstrated that the HR function within a Trust evolved through these changes in political and organisational focus and ‘generated a new focus on labour productivity and on value for money from which ‘a new and strategic approach to the management of the workforce was required and as a result they decided to ‘embrace the principles of human resource management'(1996:31). So with the acknowledgement that service funding follows customers, customer satisfaction is linked to quality of service, and quality of service is linked to ‘the skills, motivation and commitment of service staff, within such a ‘labour intensive human service industry the role of HRM is imperative (Bach 2001:1; Pollock 2004). The Changing Role of HRM in the NHS Yet HRMs move from an administrative role to a function that potentially impacts upon corporate strategy has been my no means plain sailing. Ham succinctly locates a key basis for conflict within the NHS in his suggestion that ‘there is continuing tension between the role of doctors in deciding treatment†¦and the attempt by managers and politicians to influence priorities at a national and local level (1996:96). There is much literature on the dominance of professionals and the conflict with managers within public sector organisations and in particular the NHS (Kember 1994; Skjorshammer 2001; Atun 2006; Hoggett 2006) and it is clear that their dominance remains not only because of their unique skills and knowledge but also because of their obvious importance within the service (Kelly and Glover 1996). However, within the changing NHS, the dominance of the professionals is subject to more and more management constraints, both on their resources and their autonomy and whilst some acceptance of management expertise is recognised by the professional groups their patience reaches a limit when this becomes encroachment on their ‘professional competence, resulting inevitably in conflict (Ackroyd 1996). Managers within the NHS are marked by a poor image, often both within the organisation and by members of the public. Meralis study found that the ‘majority of the managers were convinced that the general public believed that doctors and nurses were the only professionals in the NHS who are motivated by a desire to serve/provide care to society (2003:558) and similarly within this research the public perception of management within the NHS was consistently negative: ‘Theres too many [managers] as it is, ‘The NHS should swap most of the managers for doctors and nurses, then there wouldnt be waiting lists, â€Å"If you can find out what the management do then thats an achievement in itself. Overall it seems that management, especially in a context of attempting to rationalise the NHS and incorporate business ideals of value for money and efficiency which often results in cost-cutting through redundancies and closing services, are deemed by non-managers to hold an enti rely different ideology that is a far cry from caring for people. Yet the function of ‘management is well placed within the NHS, and its conflict with the medical professionals whilst often cited can appear over-emphasised. However with HRM now shifting in its role from administration and support to management and strategy at the same time as organisational change that is producing a complex and uncertain environment for many within the NHS, the HRM function faces a hostile crowd. This symmetry between the focus upon business and private sector ideals and the rise in HR as a function in its own right, can begin to explain perhaps the antagonism that many within the NHS express towards the HR departments. Those within the NHS who hold close to their hearts the original ideals of the NHS and their role within it rather than fighting against government initiatives and the corporate business world influence instead could hold to account the one group which was ‘created out of these initiatives the HR function. Bryson et al in acknowledging both the power struggle between doctors and management and the increasing role of HRM note that, with a complex organisational strategy that seemingly has no clear direction and with few colleagues from the traditional management functions to align with, HRM are far from being seen as any part of the ‘NHS tribal club (1996:53). Through becoming part of the ‘Corporate Business Team and gaining responsibility and a potential role of ‘power within the new NHS environment the HRM function has run into conflict. Starting off on the wrong-foot, as Bach explains, HR within the NHS must struggle with the constant accusation that it is illegitimate as its role does ‘not obviously contribute to patient care'(Bach 2001:12). It would also be expected that any role within the NHS service that had the role of scrutinising staff and reviewing quality of care when they were not medically knowledgeable would come to blows with the medical professionals, especially when the latter has enjoyed far-reaching autonomy and control in the service since its beginning (Buchan 2000). However, to also find few compatriots within the rest of management due to its timely rise with organisational change which has rationalised and constrained many other departments, many HR departments have been left in a no-mans land. There are few who would debate the continued dominance of the medical profession within the NHS, nor the importance of it remaining in such a position. However, their importance within the NHS as a business is becoming more complex. Management are increasingly holding the power to dictate for example the working patterns of doctors and they have the ability to withhold or reward resources depending upon clinicians abilities to achieve targets. And, with the introduction of Foundation Status, Trusts are running a competitive business within which all are dispensable, as Pollock describes: â€Å"†¦in the past, doctors were free to speak out in fact they were under a moral obligation to do so if they felt it was in the interests of their patients. In a business culture, however, loyalty is said to be due above all to the shareholders. Where the survival of the hospitals depends on massaging the figures and performance ratings, doctors who expose the inadequacies in the system or rail against underfunding or lack of resources are seen to be criticising their own hospitals†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (2004:203) With performance targets increasingly dominant in the NHS, to the extent that funding, resources and ‘Foundation Status can be given or taken away accordingly, accountability not only for service provision but also initiatives such as ‘Improving Working Lives have meant that HRM can also take a large piece of the managerial high-ground (Givan 2005). In addition, with the record investments in staffing and government focus upon improving service delivery through effective people management, HRM has been given legitimacy within the NHS through the Governments ‘HR in the NHS Plan (DoH 2002) which represented the NHSs ‘first generic HR strategy'(Truss 2003:49) and more recently ‘NHS Foundation Trusts: A Guide to Developing HR arrangements which highlighted the importance of the HRM function within Foundation Trusts (DoH 2006). With these initiatives in place the effective functioning of HRM is a measurable target it matters not whether the medical professio nals or other managers accept or value the role of HRM. This not only provides the HRM function with a place within the NHS, it gives it the opportunity to ‘adopt a more strategic role within the ‘new public management: ‘it is no longer consigned to a reactive and administrative role, interpreting and applying national rules, and can be proactive (Corby 1996 cited in Truss 2003:49). A number of commentators have assumed that changes in the role and status of HRM in the public sector merely follow orientations developed in the private sector (Buchan 2000; Thomason 1990). Just as the NHS as an organisation can be seen to have taken on private, corporate business strategies, so too it is considered that private sector HR management techniques were established (Buchan 2000:320). Distinct similarities can indeed be seen between the developments of HRM in the private sector and what is currently expected of the HRM function within the NHS as Begley and Boyd summarise: â€Å"The declining relevance of the command-and-control approach to business has extended into the roles played by HRM. Many companies regard their employees talents as providing a significant competitive advantage. they expect their HR professionals to formulate creative, flexible programs and policies to woo, develop, and retain that talent.†(2000:12) This apparent mirroring of private sector HR techniques within the public sector environment has met with various hostile reactions, with accusations of public managers being forced to adopt private sector HRM styles with the possible ‘dangerous result that such language will cause the public domains to ‘neglect their values (Boyne, Jenkins et al. 1999:411). Yet others, and especially some senior HR professionals within the NHS, take a different view. For them, the introduction of more efficient people management is an important and necessary development, one that is sorely needed in an environment where people are not only the service providers, but also the product and customer of healthcare services. The following empirical research and analysis demonstrates that far from being left out in the cold, the HRM function is capable of rising through an NHS Trust, effectively implementing government initiatives as well as producing its own, and finally reaching the position of designing and directing corporate strategy. Whilst the perceptions of HRM by other Trust members may vary, this is not necessarily a hindrance, but perhaps an organisational necessity that must be negotiated. Methodology The paper reports a research project that has followed the changing role of the HRM function within a large teaching NHS Trust (herein called ‘The Trust) in the UK. It reports on in-depth interviews and observations of a number of meetings involving staff from across the hospital hierarchy. The Trust is facing many changes, both in its financial governance and organisational practices. Recently it was granted â€Å"Foundation Trust† status and, as a result, a competitive drive for value for money and the need to develop efficient recruitment and retention practices have become key issues. Despite only requiring access to staff, rather than patients, researching an NHS Trust proved more difficult than originally anticipated. Currently researchers wanting to interview NHS staff are required to gain NHS Ethics Committee approval to the same degree that clinical researchers must do when requesting clinical trials on patients. This can be seen as associated with the increased awareness of the importance and value of hospital staff and their working lives at all levels of the organisation, requiring the researcher to ensure that the research is valid and that staff will not be adversely affected. It could be suggested that by not distinguishing between staff and patients and the need for ethical approval in research the NHS has adopted the understanding that to ensure quality of service and patient care staff must also benefit from an improved working life.[1] The empirical research took place over a period of nine months within the one NHS Trust and included in-depth interviews with twenty-two members of The Trusts staff and observations of key meetings with staff from across The Trusts hierarchy in attendance. A Trust Executive P.A. provided a list of thirty-five potential participants for the interviews, ranging from Assistant Service Managers, Junior Doctors, Ward Managers, Nurse Specialists and Senior Staff (including members of the Trust Executive) who were contacted via email communication. Assurances were given that these participants had not been ‘cherry picked for their perceptions of HR or management initiatives (which was reflected in interview content at times). The interviews were conducted either within an office provided by The Trust or at a location convenient to the interviewee, often a staff room or their office. Each interview was recorded, with the participants consent, and transcribed in full, with all distinguishing information such as names, exact details of roles and personal information destroyed to ensure anonymity, in accordance with the Ethics Approval criteria. The Director of Workforce and Corporate Affairs was interviewed twice, before subsequent interviews took place and again once interviewing was completed. The three meetings observed (Patient and Staff Experience Meeting; Executive Governance Committee for Clinical Effectiveness; and Strategy Advisory Group) were chosen through knowledge of the different staffing groups that would be in attendance in order to attempt to gather information as to how different groups interacted. By chance observation of the RCN Clinical Leadership Programme Presentation to the Patient and Staff Experience Group was also possible. Notes were taken during the meeting regarding staff interaction, comments about policies and Trust issues, though individual names and some meeting content was not recorded due to either anonymity or irrelevance. Due to the highly qualitative nature of this research and in valuing the need to attempt to provide an accurate and indepth understanding into the perceptions of those interviewed and how these relate to the role of HRM and its effectiveness, the following presentation and discussion of the research will use direct quotations, some at length, to highlight issues. It is felt that it is important to allow these views to be expressed clearly and as distinct from over interpretation thus enabling as honest a reflection of the current context as possible. In order to ensure the anonymity of participants they will usually be identified only by their generic role within The Trust. Discussion of Empirical Research The research demonstrates that perceptions of HRM within The Trust remain varied, a stance that is not unknown to those within the role: â€Å"I think lots of different people have lots of different perceptions. I think †¦a lot of managers are starting to see the value of HR and what HR can actually offer them†¦Other managers would probably just think we are only here to make their lives difficult and not let them get on with the job but those are the people who perhaps have never really had any involvement or used HR to its capacity† (Human Resources Staff #1) This suggests that HRM within the NHS remains in a similar situation to when Currie and Procter researched the role of personnel within the NHS and highlight the differing perceptions that the personnel department, and its subsequent human resource strategies, had within a trust: â€Å"Both executive directors and middle level managers see an advisory role as appropriate†¦They differ in their views as to whether the emphasis of the personnel department should lie with operational or strategic issues in an advisory role†¦middle managers view the personnel department unfavourably because it is distant from the operational aspects of health care†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (1998:383-384) Indeed, many of the participants found it difficult to summarise the role of HRM and during the research the role was often described as ‘personnel or ‘medical staffing. This lack of clearly defined role for some within The Trust may, as suggested by the HR staff, stem from minimal contact with the HRM department, other than in specific situations such issues with recruitment and pay-role[2]. â€Å"†¦lower grade staff will still see the HR as a sort of mini police force within the organisation and if you do anything naughty you get disciplined and I guess a lot of the lower grade staff dont have a real idea of what the HR department does†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ( Human Resources Staff2) Perhaps another reason could be the constantly changing title of the head of the HR department. Initially The Trust employed a Director of HRM but as the Director developed and expanded the remit and function of the HR departments role his title developed to one of Director of Workfor